Hunger games project Essays - English-language Films, Free Essays

Hunger games project Essays - English-language Films, Free Essays Dear Journal, Today is the day of the reaping, where we all come together to chose two victims for the Capitols annual Hunger Games. My name is the only one in the bowl so it will be chosen. Living in district twelve is hard. We are the lowest in the class system. The food is scarce, and I am the one who has to provide for my family. I cant help thinking about how the hunger games were created. There was a war that broke out, and the capitol won. As punishment, they make the districts send in two tributes to fight to the death. To the people in the capitol this is just a game, but to the districts it real. Although, the wealthy districts train for this day and see it as a chance to show their power, the lower classes are forced to sacrifice a boy and girl who can barely survive their normal life. I had no choice but to compete in the hunger games for the second time. Even though I am afraid, I will have to be brave and try to win. I keep thinking about how my family wont be able to survive while I am gone. Even though I have asked Gale to look out for Prim and my mother, I am scared they wont be able to make it if I die in the games. After the reaping, I was whisked away to the Capitol on a train. Being here reminds me how the upper wealthy class lives. They have everything they could ever need or want. This makes me feel angry towards them, even though it is not their fault, but people in my district are starving and would give anything to have just one good meal here in the Capitol. I just wish there was some way to change this, so that everybody in Panem would have enough like the capitol and the wealthy districts. Thats all for today, Katniss Everdeen

WWII Death Marches From Concentration Camps

WWII Death Marches From Concentration Camps Late in the war, the tide had turned against the Germans. The Soviet Red Army was reclaiming territory as they pushed the Germans back. As the Red Army was heading for Poland, the Nazis needed to hide their crimes. Mass graves were dug up and the bodies burned. The camps were evacuated. Documents destroyed. The prisoners that were taken from the camps were sent on what became known as Death Marches (Todesmrsche). Some of these groups were marched hundreds of miles. The prisoners were given little to no food and little to no shelter. Any prisoner who lagged behind or who tried to escape was shot. Evacuation By July 1944, Soviet troops had reached the border of Poland. Although the Nazis had attempted to destroy evidence, in Majdanek (a concentration and extermination camp just outside of Lublin on the Polish border), the Soviet Army captured the camp nearly intact. Almost immediately, a Polish-Soviet Nazi Crimes Investigation Commission was established. The Red Army continued to move through Poland. The Nazis started to evacuate and destroy their concentration camps from east to west. The first major death march was the evacuation of approximately 3,600 prisoners from a camp on Gesia Street in Warsaw (a satellite of the Majdanek camp). These prisoners were forced to march over 80 miles in order to reach Kutno. About 2,600 survived to see Kutno. The prisoners that were still alive were packed onto trains, where several hundred more died. Out of the 3,600 original marchers, less than 2,000 reached Dachau 12 days later.1 On the Road When the prisoners were evacuated they werent told where they were going. Many wondered whether they going out to a field to be shot? Would it be better to try to escape now? How far would they be marching? The SS organized the prisoners into rows usually five across and into a large column. The guards were on the outside of the long column, with some in the lead, some on the sides, and a few in the rear. The column was forced to march - often at a run. For prisoners who were already starved, weak, and ill, the march was an incredible burden. An hour would go by. They kept on marching. Another hour would go by. The marching continued. As some prisoners could no longer march, they would fall behind. The SS guards in the rear of the column would shoot anyone who stopped to rest or collapsed. Elie Wiesel Recounts I was putting one foot in front of the other mechanically. I was dragging with me this skeletal body which weighed so much. If only I could have got rid of it! In spite of my efforts not to think about it, I could feel myself as two entities - my body and me. I hated it. (Elie Wiesel) The marches took prisoners on back roads and through towns. Isabella Leitner Remembers I have a curious, unreal feeling. One of almost being part of the grayish dusk of the town. But again, of course, you will not find a single German who lived in Prauschnitz who ever saw a single one of us. Still, we were there, hungry, in rags, our eyes screaming for food. And no one heard us. We ate the smell of smoked meats reaching our nostrils, blowing our way from the various shops. Please, our eyes screamed, give us the bone your dog has finished gnawing. Help us live. You wear coats and gloves just like human beings do. Arent you human beings? What is underneath your coats? (Isabella Leitner) Surviving the Holocaust Many of the evacuations occurred during the winter. From Auschwitz, 66,000 prisoners were evacuated on January 18, 1945. At the end of January 1945, 45,000 prisoners were evacuated from Stutthof and its satellite camps. In the cold and snow, these prisoners were forced to march. In some cases, the prisoners marched for a long duration and were then loaded onto trains or boats. Elie Wiesel, Holocaust Survivor We were given no food. We lived on snow; it took the place of bread. The days were like nights, and the nights left the dregs of their darkness in our souls. The train was traveling slowly, often stopping for several hours and then setting off again. It never ceased snowing. All through these days and nights we stayed crouching, one on top of the other, never speaking a word. We were no more than frozen bodies. Our eyes closed, we waited merely for the next stop, so that we could unload our dead. (Elie Wiesel)

Biography of John F. Kennedy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Biography of John F. Kennedy - Research Paper Example Kennedy was a faithful and strong friend of labor. He served in labor committee from 1947 to 1952, six years in the House of Representatives. He also worked as the member of Joint Committee on Labor-Management Relations in 1949 (Manchester, n.d.). Later he joined U.S. Senate in 1952 and promoted foreign affairs, civil rights, progressive taxation, regulation of business and social welfare legislation. Kennedy remained the member of labor committees during his entire political career and presented much major legislation related to labor. He combated against the Taft Hartley Bill in this period. After taking this seat, he served in the Labor and Public Welfare Committee, the Government Operations Committee, the Select committee on Labor-Management Relations, the Foreign Relations Committee and the Joint Economic Committee. At that time many issues of unions aroused in factories. He was well-known in dealing with traditional and common democratic issues including trade union matters and foreign policy matters. Kennedy presented The Kennedy-Douglas-Ives Bill (1957) which entailed the whole details about the pension of every employee and the welfare funds (Manchester, n.d.). Kennedy gave a bill in 1958 which was the first main labor relations bill that got so much importance after the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947. This bill did not include the Taft Hartley amendments as proposed by the President. It was basically about controlling union abuses uncovered by the McClellan committee. It was later on rejected by the House. Kennedy introduced a minimum wage bill in 1959. It was basically the same bill presented in 1958 with few amendments regarding the financial and misconduct of union officials.

African Masks in Pablo Picasso's Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

African Masks in Pablo Picasso's Art - Essay Example The paper "African Masks in Pablo Picasso's Art" explores the role of African art in Pablo Picasso's art and in the culture of the whole world. The history of African masks dates back to before the Paleolithic era. A major feature used by the Africans to represent culture was through the use of masks in ceremonies, feasts and rituals. Furthermore, the traditional African masks exemplified heroes, ancestors, spirits, codes of conduct and animals. Usually, the raw materials used to make the masks include wood, pottery, textile, bronze and copper. The substitute details in the masks would be made using sea shells, egg shells, animal feathers, horns, hair and bones. Because of the belief that the masks represented the spirits, the makers were regarded as superiors in the village. Also, the art and talent of making masks was believed to be passed in the family hence was considered a part of inheritance. On the other hand, the history of African art by Pablo Picasso dates back to the 19th century during the colonization of Africa especially the North and West coasts by France. The scramble and partition of Africa prompted the expeditions and the travels of West elites in search of riches and adventures which resulted to the promotion African art. After painting Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, Picasso’s paintings were influenced by the two figures on the right side which basically were based on African art. Most of the African arts at that time were being interpreted to be signs of slavery, cannibalism, and mistreatment.

Red Cross A Nonprofit Organization

Red Cross A Nonprofit Organization The international Red Cross is a non-profit organization which is known for its emergency based planning, controlling, and management. As the organization is not selling any product or service for profits, it has to manage budgeting comprehensively in a way to handle crisis and emergency based situations like Hurricane Sandy. (Allen, 2011) Current events around the world have more dynamic effect on nonprofit organizations. For instance Red Cross is an international organization of disaster management. It has to reach areas where there is problem. As Alan (2011) has mentioned that today disaster managing nonprofit organizations have to be more active and dynamic. Sometimes they have to manage one disaster in Taiwan, and the other one in America. Some other projects in Africa and other non-developed geographies remain active throughout the year. Effect of Hurricane Sandy on Red Cross Red Cross has directly dealt with Hurricane Sandy in the year 2012. Red Cross came active by announcing 4,000 workers for the disaster of the hurricane. They worked in damaged and destroyed areas with thousands of volunteers. NY Times (2012) mentioned Red Cross as the most active nonprofit organization working for the development of the regions after the Hurricane Sandy. Red Cross not only sent disaster workers for disaster management, but they also managed to collect around $23 million for this particular hurricane. The following report will discuss different aspects of Red Cross related to planning, programming, budgeting, performance measurement and management control. Management of Red Cross Red Cross has properly developed itself as an organization with effective strategy of change management in order to be effective in their disaster management works all over the world. On what we do of the website of www.redcross.org, it can be seen that the organization seems to follow decentralized organizational structure with their international offices and branches all over the world. For the Hurricane Sandy program, Red Cross (2012) initiated work right after the threats of the hurricane were made public by different authorities. The organization started with the planning phase so as to deal with it successfully. Planning Planning is not same in profit oriented and nonprofit oriented organizations. Peters and Pierre (2012) have mentioned that strategic planning of profit oriented organization is based on higher sales, market growth, higher target market, revenues and hence net income. They said that strategic planning of nonprofit organization is based on higher benefits of the society. Red Cross has similar kind of planning in which they care for society, particularly against sudden disasters like Hurricane Sandy, Red Cross plans in accordance with mission and vision of their organization. The mission and principle of Red Cross is to serve humanity whenever it is in trouble. Red Cross cannot take a project or a program when it is not related to their program. Red Cross cannot help brokers who are in financial trouble because of the current recession in America, as it is not according to their mission and vision. According to the website of Red Cross, the organization plans in accordance with disaster and constant hunger and poverty. The planning is done on need bases. For example when Hurricane Sandy was predicted, Red Cross put all their efforts and American resources to work for the people he could be affected by the hurricane. Programming Bryson (2011) has done extensive research on public and nonprofit organizations in their planning and programming deals. He said that nonprofit organizations plan and program with their mission and vision. They cannot program against their values. Strategic planning and programming should also be in accordance with each other. Upper management and board will give directions and approval of different programs. Conduct of planning and programming with team based activities. Potential clients are involved in planning and initial programming so that contacts can be developed for fundraising and donations. Programming in Red Cross is according to the studies of Bryson (2011). They plan and work within their defined domains. In Hurricane Sandy Program by Red Cross (2012), it can be seen that Red Cross had planned for it before the problem actually started. The potential disaster was approved by the board because it was according to their mission and vision. Programming has its value all over the world in both profit and nonprofit oriented organizations. It is a way of management in all the aspects of an organization. Budgeting Finance of Red Cross is dependent on fundraising and donations by public and private sector. Majority of nonprofit organizations working for wellbeing of humanity are based on donations for the fulfillment of financial needs. Red Cross (2012) was able to generate $23 million through celebrities for the disaster management of Hurricane Sandy. Budgeting for nonprofit organizations involved in humanitarian and disaster management works can raise financial resources based on needs. For example when Hurricane Sandy hit America, people started to donate more than usual to Red Cross. Similarly other organizations of disaster management have more opportunity to raise financial resources. (Weerawardenaa, McDonaldb, Mort, 2010) Weerawardenaa, McDonaldb and Mort (2010) have further said that the nonprofit organizations which have proved to be effective and efficient in social works are more potential to generate financial resources. In current financial scenario of America, the whole country is in financial crisis because of higher inflation rate, higher unemployment and low business opportunities. Such current scenarios have restricted some of the financial resources for the nonprofit organizations. According to Vermeer, Raghunandan and Forgione (2009) nonprofit organizations have a comprehensive share in the economy of America even today. Some corruption and scandal issues have created problem for nonprofit industry, but still it has a unique influence. For example, when it comes to natural disasters, people do contact organizations which are pro towards volunteers work. Organizations which have made their name are trusted more by people. Performance measurement and management control Red Cross has developed performance measurement strategy to evaluate their performance. In July 2004, they launched the chapter of Performance Standards. On page of Red Cross (http://www.redcross.org.au/strategy-2015.aspx), the organization has mentioned their Strategy 2015 where performance measurement and control management has been focused. Achievement of goals has been made compulsory in Red Cross where organization has to follow them. Performance will be measured by managers so as to improve and take corrective actions. Performance will be accountable to stakeholders at the organizational level. Past and current organizational renewal projects will also be analyzed for better future programs. Training and development will be part of the programs. (RedCross, Working as One Strategy 2015, 2013) Ridder and McCandless (2010) have focused on human resource management of nonprofit organizations like Red Cross. The authors have agreed that none of the nonprofit organization can ignore the importance of human resource management in their programs. They need to offer proper hiring, training, developmental, compensation, and performance management program. Human resource management plays a strategic role in an organization which cannot be ignored. Evaluation of different programs should be done when a certain phase or the whole program is finished. For example, Red Cross should have complete evaluation and reporting of Hurricane Sandy project. It will help them to know their weaknesses and strengths. The evaluation will help them to take corrective actions in future and to make themselves better. Human resource management should be focused in areas like personnel costs, salaries, training, space, travel, development, hierarchy, structure, etc. They should be effective when assigning employees and volunteers for different programs. For example, for Hurricane Sandy program, they can only assign those volunteers who have high stamina and more will power to fight against natural disasters. Management in nonprofit organization Management of nonprofit organization needs same importance as in profit oriented organization. Finance, accounting, human resource management, strategic management, planning, control, training and development, performance management, evaluation, corrective actions and all other business and managerial practices have similar kind of importance and influence on nonprofit organizations in the modern times today. Management of all kinds should be given proper space and focus in nonprofit organizations. A research showed that out of 229 nonprofit organizations based on charities (like Red Cross), it was seen that higher nonprofit organizations which worked in accordance with modern business practices, technology and business strategies were able to generate higher results. It was also seen that such organizations with successful planning and implementation of different programs were focused on strategic human resource management. (Guo, Brown, Ashcraft, Yoshioka, Dong, 2011) Red Cross and Hurricane Sandy On Hurricane Sandy Program, Red Cross had published reports and online material through which they have proved their struggle against the natural disaster. With planning and organizing of Red Cross, the organization was able to provide 1400 evacuation centers for around 450,000 evacuees. More than 68 million meals were provided to the affected people. 1.4 million families were helped in basic needs of food, groceries, clothing, etc. (RedCross, Hurricane Recovery Program, 2012) Red Cross has one positive image of showing team work and idea of being together to the society. This is a marketing tactic as well used by various profit oriented organizations to show being together approach. For example Nokia connecting people is a way of the company to show integration in the market and society. Similarly Red Cross has shown an image of being together with victims of Hurricane Sandy. They stood up with the people and helped them in achieving back their regular lives. Emotional behavior is another tactic used by firms through advertising to attract target market. Red Cross used emotional behavior as well to attract donations and financial resources for managing their Hurricane Sandy program. They were so much effective in their emotional approach and marketing that around 200,000 individuals were ready to participate voluntarily for Hurricane Sandy program. Hurricane Sandy program of Red Cross was a successful as it provided around $110 million assistance to the victims. The management of Red Cross proved to be successful in this fight against the disaster. (RedCross, Hurricane Recovery Program, 2012) Current management control in nonprofit organization Modern and current management control in profit and nonprofit organization has shifted a lot. As Red Cross is working in situation where there can be risk and sudden management control requirements, actions has to be taken accordingly. Power (2011) has mentioned risk management for situations in which current organizations have to fell into sudden dynamic external environment changes. Current management control in modern world is associated with information technology as well. To keep updated with external environment, risk management and modern aspects of business, management control of different organizations have to stay active with information technology in current world. Information technology not only helps organization to be efficient within the organization, but also in the external world, industry and the international market. (Li, Peters, Richardson, Watson, 2012) In the modern business world of profit and nonprofit organizations, performance management is another important aspect which is associated with risk management and information technology. Current management is not in the typical or classical way of old days in which number of production of a labor was seen or calculated. Today organizations see their employees as individual personnel as well as team/group mates. Performance of individual is measurement today in both tangible and intangible forms. Behavior, ethics, way of communication, work itself, production, team work, and other related aspects are part of performance measurement and management. Such modern practices of management control have changed management practices completely. (Dyck Neubert, 2008) Current events that have shaped and changed management control and performance management practices are international business expansion, turning of world into global village, globalization, whole world into financial crisis, dependence of different industries on each other, etc. All these events are related with each other today. Today the world is interrelated more with each other. If there will a Tsunami in any part of the world, thousands of international companies and NGOs will join hands together to save humanity. Conclusion For all the programs in a nonprofit organization, like Red Cross, it starts with planning. Planning is crucial for both profit oriented and nonprofit oriented organizations. Red Cross was aware that Hurricane Sandy is coming and its aftermaths can be seriously disastrous for a lot of families. The organization started planning right from the beginning with their program initiatives and marketing strategies to generate donations and charities. Program of Hurricane Sandy was properly defined with goals and mission. Thousands of volunteers were registered and were given training to assist the affected societies. Donations were spent on victims and corrective actions were taken during and after the program so as to be more effective in future programs. Budgeting was done by the organization by donations. $110 were gathered and spent on different subprograms under Hurricane Sandy program. Performance measurement programs were also taken by the managerial teams so that it can be shown to the stakeholders and corrective actions can be taken in future programs. It is important to see the managerial similarities between profit oriented and nonprofit oriented organizations. There is a lot of different in selling, revenue generation, target marketing, etc; but internally there is almost similar kind of management, decision making, planning, hiring, training and development, performance measurement, and evaluation. A nonprofit organization has also a mission and vision statement which guides them for their ventures and programs. Red Cross has a mission to serve humanity which was in accordance with Hurricane Sandy, and hence they took active part. Managerial aspects of nonprofit organizations vary a little from other organizations but it is not alien with traditional organizations.

Why Is Media Effects Important

16 CHAPTER 1 paradigm† (Gitlin, 1978), more powerful, yet subtle effects, such as social control, manufacturing of consent, and reluctance to challenge the status quo, are unable to be studied; so they are ignored. WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO STUDY MEDIA EFFECTS With all these questions about the existence and substance of media effects, why is it important to continue to study them? Students in introductory mass communication courses are often reminded that mass communication is functional in society (Wright, 1986) and an important field of study because of its role as a major societal institution.Mass communication is an important economic force in the United States. In 1993, the entertainment industry alone (movies, music, cable television, and home video) brought an estimated $50 billion into the U. S. economy. Network television advertising added an additional $30 billion (Warner, 1993). Mass communication is also an important political force, acting as a watchdog over official actions and as the platform for political information and activity. The Watergate scandal, for example, was brought to light by the Washington Post and the Pentagon papers were first published by the New York Times.Political campaigns are now built around television. In 1992, the Republicans spent two-thirds of their budget on television advertisements for George Bush. Talk shows and news program coverage are crucial to campaigns. Our political leaders contact the public primarily through the mass media—press conferences, political talks. Ronald Reagan noticed that there was little political news that was made during the weekends, so he (an old radio announcer, himself) began to make radio addresses about various issues on Saturday mornings.These addresses got so much news coverage (Martin, 1984), in part because there was so little else happening, that Saturday morning radio talks are a current presidential practice. At the same time, mass media are a major source of entert ainment and the main source for news for most people. In 1995, a majority of people in the United States turned to media for news: 70. 3% were regular viewers of local television news, 67. 3% were regular viewers of network television news, and 59. 3% read a daily newspaper. In INTRODUCTION 17 addition, 48. % listened regularly to radio news and 31. 4% read a news magazine regularly (Stempel & Hargrove, 1996). Beyond the importance of mass communication in society, there are two main reasons for continuing to study media effects. The first reason is theoretical. Although most scholars acknowledge that mass media effects can occur, we still don’t know the magnitude and inevitability of the effects. That is, we don’t know how powerful the media are among the range of other forces in society. And, we don’t know all the conditions that enhance or mitigate various effects.Most importantly, we don’t understand all the processes by which mass communication can l ead to various effects. Research in media effects must continue to add to our knowledge. A second reason for studying media effects is practical and policy oriented. If we can elaborate the conditions and understand the various processes of media effects—how media effects occur—we can use that knowledge. At a practical level, understanding the processes of media effects will allow media practitioners to create effective messages to achieve political, advertising, and public relations-oriented goals.Additionally, agencies will be able to formulate media campaigns to promote prosocial aims and benefit society as a whole. That is, understanding the processes of media effects will allow media practitioners to increase the likelihood of prosocial media effects. Most importantly, understanding how media effects occur will give parents, educators, and public officials other tools to fight negative media effects. If we understand the processes of media effects, we will also un derstand how to mitigate negative effects.No longer will changing or restricting media content be the only methods to stop media effects. We will be able to mitigate negative media effects by also targeting aspects of the process of impact. WAYS TO CONCEPTUALIZE MEDIA EFFECTS: DIMENSIONS OF MEDIA EFFECTS Over the years, scholars have suggested that it is useful to analyze media effects along specific dimensions (Anderson & Meyer, 1988; Chaffee, 1977; McGuire, 1986; J. M. McLeod, Kosicki, & Pan, 1991; J. M. McLeod & Reeves, 1980; Roberts & Maccoby, 1985).Some of the dimensions delineate the type of effect; other dimensions elaborate the conditions of media impact. 18 CHAPTER 1 Cognitive-Affective-Behavioral Dimension Media effects are commonly described along a cognitive-affectivebehavioral dimension, which marks a distinction between acquisition of knowledge about an action and performance of the action. Mass communication scholars have been greatly influenced by persuasion models t hat see human action as logical and driven by cognition (e. g. , McGuire, 1985).This dimension is important in keeping scholars from assuming that knowledge and attitudes translate directly into action. Persuasion research during World War II, for example, found that although media content may be quite effective at teaching information, it had less influence on attitude formation and motivation to act (Hovland, Lumsdaine, & Sheffield, 1949). The Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) posits that, although knowledge and attitudes have some impact on behavior, their influence is mediated (or eliminated) by social constraints.Micro- Versus Macrolevel Another dimension that describes the type of effect is one that focuses on the level of media influence: micro- versus macrolevel. Most concern about media effects focuses on impressionable audiences and has been grounded in psychological approaches. So, there is a wealth of research on media effects at the individual, or micro level. It is a fallacy, however, to assume that all media effects are accumulations of individual-level effects.Scholars recognize that a focus solely on individual-level media effects can obscure more subtle societal-level effects. Research on the effects of Sesame Street, for example, showed that children of all socioecomic status (SES) classes learned from the program. But, that learning led to another, unintended effect: a widening gap in knowledge between higher and lower SES groups. Although all children learned from the program, children from higher SES families learned at a faster rate (Cook et al. , 1975).So, individual knowledge gain may lead to greater inequities in society. Another area in which an accumulation of individual-level effects might conceal more macrolevel effects is news learning. Although many researchers have uncovered various media-related influences on public-affairs knowledge (e. g. , J. P. Robinson & Levy, 1986, 1996), these studies cannot assess the c ompleteness, accuracy, or objectivity of media’s presentations about public affairs. Several scholars argue that larger influences on news gathering and reporting may make INTRODUCTION 19 ndividual-level knowledge effects inconsequential because news sources and practices present only limited public affairs information to the public (e. g. , Gitlin, 1980; Herman & Chomsky, 1988; Tuchman, 1978). So, knowledge gain by individuals may not necessarily be functional for society. Several important effects of mass media maybe at the societal, institutional, or cultural level. Over the years, for example, the expanding telecommunications revolution has changed, and no doubt will continue to affect how political campaigns and the workings of govern-ment are conducted.Clearly, scholars need to consider various levels of media impact. Intentional Versus Unintentional Another dimension of media effects directs scholars to consider whether the effects are intended versus unintended planned for or accidental. Although this dimension is a descriptive one, it also offers some insights in the processes of media impact. For example, the development of knowledge gaps between high and lower SES children who watched Sesame Street is generally considered an unintended effect of the flow of media information. So, cholars and media policymakers study ways to close accidental knowledge gaps by increasing access to a variety of sources of information, by making information more relevant to lower SES groups, or by increasing the motivation of lower SES audience members to seek additional information. The identification of these knowledge-gap effects as accidental, then, has led scholars to focus on how knowledge is carried by the mass media, how audiences access that knowledge, and how people use media-delivered information. Another example of the relevance of the intended versus unintended dimension is one effect of television violence.The cultivation hypothesis suggests that one, often overlooked, effect of television violence is that it affects social perceptions of heavy viewers and leads those groups who are victimized in television drama to feel fearful, alienated from society, and distrusting of others (Gerbner & Gross, 1976; Gerbner et al. , 1994). If scholars believe that these effects are unintentional due to the conventions of television drama production, they might advocate certain remedies to help mitigate these effects, such as television program ratings to help fearful people avoid certain programs or to help parents screen what their children watch.If, on the other 20 CHAPTER 1 hand, scholars believe that cultivation is an intentional effect designed to reinforce the existing power structure in society by structuring reality for women and minorities so that they avoid involvement in political affairs, possible solutions would be quite different. Those scholars (at the very least) would be less trusting of television program ratings af fixed by television producers and probably not advocate that sort of solution to cultivation effects. Studying unintended effects can be a way of increasing media effectiveness.Dramatic story lines in soap operas and telenovelas have been found to not only captivate their audiences but bring about knowledge gain and some prosocial attitudinal effects (e. g. , Singhal & Rogers, 1989). So this dimension of media effects directs scholars to search for a range of effects, beyond those planned for the media producers. Content-Dependent Versus Content-Irrelevant The content-dependent versus a content- irrelevant distinction reflects the impact of specific classes of media content as opposed to the impact of media use itself.The most visible media effects research has focused on the effects of specific media content, such as stereotypes, violence, and pornography. This research assumes that specific content is linked to specific effects. As J. M. McLeod and Reeves (1980) paraphrase the nut ritional analogy, â€Å"We are what we eat†: We are what we watch. So, one way to reduce aggressive behavior in children would be to reduce the amount of violent media content that they read or watch.Or, one way to reduce sexual aggression against women would be to reduce access to media content that depicts violence against women. Although there is a good deal of evidence of the effects of specific media content, scholars should also be aware that some effects are due less to specific media content, and more to the form of the content or the act of media use. Displacement effects are a commonly identified content-irrelevant effect. Lazarsfeld and Merton (1948) suggested that political involvement could suffer if people become politically â€Å"narcotized. That is, public affairs media use might replace real political action and some people might be informed, but politically apathetic. Watching television has been attributed with lower academic achievement because children a re replacing homework and study with television watching (Armstrong & Greenberg, 1990; Hornik, 1978). INTRODUCTION 21 Other content-irrelevant effects maybe due to the form of the media presentation. Tavris (1988) is one writer who has suggested that television’s regular commercial interruptions has led to shorter attention spans.Scholars (Shannon & Weaver, 1949) investigating how information theory is relevant to media effects have found that the randomness of television’s formal features are connected to aggressive responses (Watt & Krull, 1977). Kozma (1991) speculated how the form and use of different media lead to different learning styles and outcomes. And there is a good deal of evidence that arousing media content, whether it is violent, pornographic, or suspenseful, can lead to similar excitation effects (Zillmann, 1980, 1982).In order to understand how media effects occur, we need to uncover, first, if they are content-relevant or content-irrelevant. Short Te rm Versus Long Term Media effects can be long or short term. This dimension is not only a descriptive one, but also helps describe the process of media effects. When we examine media effects, we need to question how long the effect is theoretically expected to last. Some effects, such as increased arousal (or relaxation) are relatively short term, and disappear quickly. Others, such as agenda setting, may last somewhat longer, but may disappear as the media agenda changes.Still other effects, such as the social learning of aggressive behavior, are expected to be fairly enduring, especially if the aggressive behavior, once performed, is rewarded. Some theories do not specify the persistence of their effects. Do the stereotypes that children learn from television persist even as children watch less and less television as they get older? How long do the effects of televised political ads (and their associated voting intentions) last? What are the possibilities that new ads (and new inf ormation) will change voting intentions?And what are the implications of differing periods of influence? Clearly, short-term effects can have a profound impact. If, for example, a short-term arousal effect of a violent film leads someone to get involved in a fight, permanent injury could result. But, if agenda-setting effects last only as long as an issue stays near the top of the media agenda, what long-lasting impacts can result? Media effects scholars should be clear in specifying the duration of the effects that they study. 22 CHAPTER 1 Reinforcement Versus Change A final dimension of media effects is that of reinforcement versus change.Does media exposure alter or stabilize? The most visible media effects studies focus on how media content or exposure changes the audience (or society or culture). For example, we are concerned how placid children might be changed into aggressive ones by watching violent cartoons. Or that respectful men will change into uncaring desensitized oafs through exposure to pornography. Or that voters might have their political values adjusted through exposure to political ads. Or that ignorant citizens will become knowledgeable through exposure to public affairs news.And so on. There is evidence, though, that communication’s strongest effect, overall, is reinforcement and stabilization. Selective exposure leads people to prefer media messages that reinforce their preexisting views. Selective perception points out that people interpret media content to reinforce their attitudes. Because it is often easier to observe change than reinforcement, we often neglect media’s power to stabilize. Advertisements that keep supporters active in a political campaign and keep them from wavering in support yield important effects.Media content that reinforces the already existing aggressive tendencies of a young boy may be an even more important influence than prosocial messages that have little impact. We must be careful not to equa te reinforcement effects with null effects. CONCLUSION The study of media effects is grounded in the belief that mass communication has noticeable effects on individuals, society, and culture. Evidence for these effects, though, is problematic. On one hand, despite consistence findings of effects, the variance accounted for is typically small.Moreover, the strongest effects are usually relegated to laboratory settings, which are highly artificial settings. There are, however, several reasons to expect that research underestimates media effects. Our models, theories, and methods are still imprecise; we still cannot offer complete explanations for media effects. The study of media effects remains important so that we can increase understanding of the role mass communication plays in shaping our lives. Awareness of the process of media effects will allow us to use mass communication effectively—to maximize desirable outcomes and minimize negative effects.

The Mental Health Treatment Of Australia - 1571 Words

In the Mental Health treatment we can distinguish two different approaches to patient treatment, this is known as models of treatment, firstly we have a medical model, and secondary we a using person recovery model. To understanding of recovery in Australia, we have to acknowledge that is heavily influenced by recovery research and literature from the USA, Canada and New Zealand It is suggested that the term â€Å"recovery† has been adopted in Australia from the late 1980s (Lakeman, 2004, p.212; McGrath et al., 2007). It has become popular in mental health discourse and influences policy directives and service delivery initiatives (Meehan et al., 2007; Rickwood, 2004; Slade et al., 2008). Medical model in the mental health mostly concentrates on the treatment of the physiological aspect of illness, this model is used at the inpatients admissions, by psychiatrist overall in the clinical /medical settings. There are many definitions of term â€Å"Medical Model† many of them suggested that it is a scientifically proven process, concentrates on the treatment of the symptoms, is not client centred, and medical professionals are in charge of making and presiding with consumer treatment plan , some professionals also describe the medical model as the Western approach to illness. When we talking about mental health recovery we will take under consideration not only medical model but also the effect of psychotherapy, and person-centred model of recovery. Recovery in the mental health isShow MoreRelatedThe Impact Of Racism On The Health Of Indigenous Australians911 Words   |  4 PagesRacism in Australia has always been a controversial element of our country and still continues on in today’s society. Our nation is a bigot country, and the history of Australia shows it continuously has been. Racism majorly impacts the health of Indigenous Australians. 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